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What
Does the LC-MS Teach about the Pope? I.
Introduction Pope John Paul II has been exemplary as a political leader (e.g., opposition to communism and solidarity with the Poles) and as one who has resisted the liberalization of the Roman Catholic church (i.e., liberal higher criticism, liberal social issues, etc.). The Book of Concord (preface) recognizes that the common people in the Roman church are ignorant and confused by the vast array of traditions and false doctrines, thereby are excused for their errors, so long as they cling to Christ and his merits for salvation. On the other hand, although John Paul II has invoked few of the extraordinary and unscriptural powers of the papacy, those powers are still claimed for the office by the Roman church. The papal office was not changed by Vatican II, only the church's ecumenical and political stance. II. Anti-Catholicism as an Ethnic Prejudice - LCMS in 1994 produced a
CTCR statement "Racism and the Church" rejecting all forms of social prejudice
(commended for study at 1995 convention). It asks its members to refrain from
ethnic and racial prejudices of all types. I agree with this position. III. How LCMS and Catholics Are Alike1) Both are traditionalists, in the sense of a respect for traditional values, traditional morality, and continuity with spiritual fathers and mothers. This has changed for both churches with the American "baby-boomer" generation, which is for the most part anti-traditionalist. 2) Both churches would today be considered, in modern politics, "conservative." The LCMS officially supports the traditional Christian definition of marriage, strongly discourages divorce, condemns fornication, is pro-life, supports a strong work ethic, defends the rights of private property, teaches that rulers and employers should take care of their subjects, and that citizens and employees should obey the laws and cooperate with authorities. Catholics would agree. 3) Both have preferred a traditional environment for worship, i.e., medieval or classical architecture for their church buildings, altar-centric worship space, medieval-origins liturgical texts, chant, use of the psalms, classical choral and organ music, pipe organs, vestments, clergy shirts, paraments, candles, stained glass, church art, etc. American "baby-boomer" churches, whether they are LCMS or Catholic, often reject these traditions. 4) Both have strong parochial school systems and a system of catechism classes for young and old. 5) Both are strongly sacramental in regards to Baptism, Lord's Supper, and Confession, although LCMS rejects the Catholic idea that ordination, marriage, confirmation, and last rites are sacraments. 6) Both have common doctrines of: Revelation, Scripture, Historicity of Scripture, God, Trinity, Two Natures of Christ, Historic Fall, Divine Institute of the Pastoral Office, and the rejection of Millenialism. IV. How LCMS and Catholics are Different1) **Salvation - how to be saved and how to know you are saved. Includes doctrines of the work of Christ, sin, repentance, justification, sanctification, faith, good works, vocation, the Mass, the sacraments, purgatory, etc. Since the rest of Christian teaching is pretty worthless if you end up in hell, the doctrines pertaining to salvation are quite obviously the most important! When Lutherans talk about "justification," they are talking usually about these related doctrines of justification which differ from Catholic teachings. 2) Mediation - who assists you in the process of salvation. Includes doctrines of the Means of Grace, the cult of the saints, the Mass, the power of the priesthood, monastic vocation, etc. 3) Life of the Clergy - monasticism and celibacy. 4) Organization of the Church - hierarchy and obedience in Catholicism; vs. democracy and debate in LCMS. 5) Hermeneutics and Theological Method - how to interpret the Bible and establish doctrine. V. To Whom are LCMS Christians Closest in Theology and Practice?Base on the priority of certain doctrines and the degree of differences (in order from "a" closest to "b" farthest): a) "Book of Concord" Lutherans (e.g., WELS, ELS, LCC, members of the International Lutheran Council). b) "Thirty-Nine Articles" Anglicans (e.g., The Reformed Episcopal Church in the US). c) Bohemian and Moravian Brethren d) "Westminster Confession" Calvinists (e.g., "Orthodox Presbyterians" with its two Westminster Seminaries and "Presbyterian Church in America" with its Covenant Theological Seminary, St. Louis) e) Conservative Methodists (e.g., Wesleyan Church) and Evangelicals. f) Anabaptists (e.g., Mennonites, Amish) g) Russian Orthodox "Old Believers" (symbol is cross with three bars, bottom slanted) and Pre-Chalcedonian churches (e.g., Coptic, Syrian Orthodox, and Assyrian churches). h) Eastern Orthodox i) "Old Catholics," including the "Polish National Catholic Church of America" (e.g., SS. Cyril and Methodius in St. Louis). j) Roman Catholics k) Pentecostals and Charismatics l) Liberal Protestants, as long as they accept the messiahship and divinity of Jesus, otherwise they cannot claim to be Christian. VI. What is the LC-MS Official Position on the Papacy? A) As the Head Teacher of the Roman Catholic Church - The pope is the official representative of those priests, religious, and laymen who teach the errors rejected in the Book of Concord. Whatever is rejected in the Book of Concord therefore applies to the Pope and his clerical followers. The Book of Concord carefully distinguishes between the pope and his clergy, which are criticized at length, and the people of the Catholic church who are excused for their ignorance (see Preface to the Book of Concord, sec. 20; KW, pp. 12-13). B) The Papal Office in the Confessions1 - Smalcald Articles II, iv (full text, see KW, pp. 307-310). "This business show overwhelmingly that the pope is the true end-times Antichrist (Endchrist or Widerchrist) who has raised himself over and set himself against Christ." (sec. 10, p. 309). 2 - Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope (full text, see KW, pp. 330-334). "The bishop of Rome claims to be superior by divine right to all bishops and pastors. In addition, he claims to possess by divine right the power of both swords, that is, the authority to confer and transfer royal authority. Third, he states that it is necessary for salvation to believe these things. For these reasons the Roman bishop calls himself the vicar of Christ on earth. We hold and publicly declare that these three articles of faith are false, impious, tyrannical, and ruinous to the church" (sec. 1-4, p. 330). "The marks of the antichrist clearly fit the reign of the pope and his minions" (sec. 39, p. 337). 3 - Augsburg Confession and Apology, On the Power of Bishops, Article 28 (full text, see KW, pp. 90-105; 289-294) - pope not addressed directly, but his authority undermined as the chief bishop of the church. 4 - Apology XXIV, On the Mass (KW, pp. 266-267). "Daniel describes a vastly different desolation [of the temple], namely, ignorance of the gospel. The people [in the Middle Ages] were swamped by the many different traditions and opinions and were in no way able to grasp the sum of Christian teaching. For who among the people ever understood the teaching about repentance as the opponents explain it? Yet this is the chief topic of Christian teaching . . . The opponents never mentioned faith, by which we freely receive the forgiveness of sins. . . .In addition, they horribly profaned the Mass and introduced many other godless acts of worship into the churches. This is the desolation that Daniel describes." C) The Papal Office in the LC-MS 1932 "Brief Statement"Section 43. "As to the Antichrist we teach that the prophecies of the Holy Scriptures concerning the Antichrist, 2 Thess. 2:3-12, I John 2:18, have been fulfilled in the Pope of Rome and his dominion. All the features of the Antichrist as drawn in these prophecies, including the most abominable and horrible ones, for example, that the Antichrist "as God sitteth in the temple of God," 2 Thess. 2:4; that he anathematizes the very heart of the Gospel of Christ, that is, the doctrine of the forgiveness of sins by grace alone, for Christ's sake alone, through faith alone, without any merit or worthiness in man (Rom 3:20-28; Gal. 2:16); that he recognizes only those as members of the Christian Church who bow to his authority; and that, like a deluge, he had inundated the whole Church with his antichristian doctrines till God revealed him through the Reformation - these very features are the outstanding characteristics of the Papacy (cf. Treatise, 39-41 [KW, 337]; Apology XXIV, 45-46 [KW, 266-267)]). Hence we subscribe o the statement of our Confessions that the Pope is "the very Antichrist" (SA II, iv, 10 [KW, 309])." VII. Is The LCMS Position Reasonable? - Seems to be unduly harsh, even unChristian. Seems to be irrational. Why does it seem to be harsh and irrational? - Enlightenment influence, entering into Protestant theology and church, has
rejected previously universally accepted Christian doctrines: existence of
Satan, existence of hell, eternal damnation, existence of demons (i.e., evil
angels), the ability of Satan to influence the course of human events, and the
anti-christ(s). - The fact is that ignoring evil will not make it go away. The Western nations ignored the rise of Hitler hoping he would go away and leave them alone. - The doctrine of anti-christ (I John 2:18-19,22), the prediction of false messiahs (Mark 13:5, 21-23), and the "son of perdition" (II Thess. 2:1-12) is clearly taught in the New Testament. Those who believe in the inerrancy of Scripture must believe in these things. They cannot simply be ignored. - The difficult task is determining whether or not these predictions have been fulfilled and by whom, or whether they remain for the future. VIII. Is The LCMS Position Anachronistic?- Seems to no longer be relevant, in light of the changes in the Roman church. Is the pope the same today as in previous history? - Most of the American public is ignorant of history outside of America. Our sort of religious tolerance is an exception in history. >From 1207 and thereafter, it was universal practice under papal decree to torture and burn heretics. Luther's condemnation in 1521, which authorized execution, was directed against him and all Protestants. Whether this was carried out depended on the political situation, but where the pope's will was unmitigated, Protestants were simply exterminated. Foxe's Book of Martyrs gives plenty of examples of Protestant tortures and executions that were "abominable and horrible." - Voltaire and the Enlightenment saw Inquisition and papal rule as one of their chief enemies. 1789, the French Revolution, was the beginning of the end of papal dominance and the Inquisition in Roman Catholic lands. 1834 saw the end of the Inquisition in Spain and its territories in the New World. 1860 was the end of the Inquisition in Rome and the Papal states. Vatican I (1869-70) and the decree of papal infallibility was, in some ways, an attempt to compensate for the loss of political power. - 1962-65 - Vatican II affirmed the right of religious liberty and recognized both other Christians and other religions as fellow seekers of the truth, although to different degrees. On the other hand, Vatican II maintained that "It is through Christ's Catholic Church alone, which is the all-embracing means of salvation, that the fullness of the means of salvation can be obtained" (Unitatis Redintegratio, I.3). Thus the papacy has changed by giving up its former oppression and persecution of religious opponents, but has not changed its claim to be the sole dispensary of "full salvation." - The primary Biblical texts (II Thessalonians 2 and I John 2) do not talk of the antichrist being a persecutor of religious opponents. So the political status of the papacy in the world has changed, but its nature as examined by Scriptural teaching has not. IX. Is the LCMS Position the Same as the Fundamentalists? - Absolutely not! - Fundamentalists and Evangelicals differ on many issues, particularly on their relationship to the Roman Catholic church. Fundamentalists are generally anti-papal; Evangelicals are generally more ecumenical. Some have even signed a statement on common moral issues "Evangelicals and Catholics Together" in the 1990s. - Most fundamentalists are known as "dispensational premillenialists." "Dispensational" refers to a historical periodization based on scriptural interpretation. "Premillenialism" is the belief that Jesus will return to establish a 1000 year reign on earth before the Final Judgment. - The LCMS has always rejected "premillenialism," as did the Lutheran church in its confessions, see Augsburg Confession 17. - The fundamentalists position on the anti-christ is based on ideas developed in the Middle Ages about the meaning of the Book of Revelation, looking for a fulfillment of every detail in history. The Lutheran position was based II Thessalonians 2 and I John 2, and sees the anti-christ not as one historical figure, but as a type which many might fulfill, if they bear the marks. X. The Marks of the Antichrist, according to Luther and Melanchthon (see Treatise on Power and Primacy of the Pope, 39-40 [KW, 337]): - #1 - Rules over the church and establishes earthly dominion on the basis of doctrine of church and ministry, esp. Matthew 16:19, "The Keys." - #2 - Doctrine contradicts the Gospel at numerous points. - #3 - Claims the right to alter Jesus' teaching and worship. - #4 - Claims to bind and loose in this life and the next. - #5 - Not willing to be judged by anyone, including councils of the church. - #6 - Defends errors with the greatest savagery, killing dissenters. - As noted before, #6 no longer applies. #1 applies regarding church rule, but not regarding earthly rule. - #5 still does apply, in spite of the appearance of conciliar authority at Vatican II. Pope Paul VI made some critical changes to documents of Vatican II before it was completed, which means he still claimed final authority. #1-4 still apply, therefore the papacy still bears some of the marks of the antichrist, per Lutheran doctrine. Anyone can come up with false doctrine and be declared a heretic. That alone does not make an "antichrist." The word "Christ" means an "anointed prince," i.e., a lord. Jesus is Lord and has universal and complete Lordship over his church through His Word. Therefore any religious leader in the church who claims or exercises "lordship" over the church stands in danger of bearing the marks of an "antichrist," because his claims or exercise of authority are in competition with Jesus. This is a problem not limited to Roman Catholicism. XI. History of the Doctrine of Antichrist The following citations are the major texts indicating the growth and change of teaching on the "Antichrist." "Antichrist" as a doctrine begins in the New Testament, is developed in the Early Church, and is applied to the papacy in the Middle Ages prior to Martin Luther. Wycliff was the originator of the Lutheran view. Lutherans obviously do not believe everything ever said about the "antichrist," and avoid confusing it with speculative prophetic interpretations from Revelation or other sources. - Daniel 7-12 - the "beasts" as representing empires. - I Enoch 85-90, 91, & 93 - origin of "dispensations" in the Apocalyse of Weeks; history of the world in allegory - "Martyrdom of Isaiah" - Satan merges with a wicked king and false prophet - Mark 13:5 - many will come saying "I am the Christ." - Mark 13:14-20 - abomination of desolation (cf. Daniel 7-12). - Mark 13:21-23 - False christs and false prophets will arise. - II Thessalonians 2:1-12 (Lutheran sedes doctrina), includes the following details: a) rebellion against God; b) "Man of Sin" title; c) "Son of Perdition" title; d) rises up against every god; e) takes his seat in God's temple; f)claims to be God himself; g) "Wicked Man" title; h) signs and miracles will accompany his ascent to power. - I John 2:18-19, 22 (Lutheran sedes doctrina)- "Antichrist" title, includes the following details: a) whoever denies that Jesus is the Christ; b) whoever denies the Father and the Son; c) there will be many antichrists; d) they will find their origin in the Christian church. - Revelation 11-19 (not used as dogma by Lutherans), introduces the figures of: a) beast from the abyss (11:7); b) beast from the sea (13:1-10); c) beast from the earth (13:11-18); d) scarlet beast carrying the harlot (17:1-18); e) two beasts condemned (16:12-16 & 19:19-21). - Sibylline Oracles, Book 3 (2nd cent. A.D.)- Emperor Nero as the fulfillment of the antichrist. - Irenaeus (130-200), Against Heresies, Book 5, 27-30 - "666" is the meaning of the trigrammaton (χξσ) in Rev. 13:18. Antichrist is the "recapitulation" of evil, i.e., the person or institution in which all evils of the world find final and complete manifestation. Antichrist in the flesh, i.e., incarnate, is a new lord of evil. A Jew from the tribe of Dan (Irenaeus rejects Sybilline identification of Nero). 3.5 year rule of a single person. Dissolution of the Roman Empire into ten kingdoms. - Hippolytus (170-236), On the Antichrist - Jesus will return at 500 A.D. Antichrist will be a Jew who sends apostles, brings scattered people together, seals his followers, a man appears who will build a new stone temple in Jerusalem. First beast in Rev. 13:1 is the Roman Empire. Second beast in Rev. 13:11 is the antichrist who restores the Roman Empire after the ten kingdoms divide the Roman Empire. The antichrist will persecute Christians who will not acknowledge his authority. Commentary on Daniel, 4th book . There is a difference between the destruction under Antiochus and the desolation under Antichrist, not the same events. Difference between 1290 and 1335 days in Revelation refers to a period of "refreshment" for the saints. - Tertullian (160-225) - Believed in both present and future antichrists. He saw the secular Roman Empire as the "restraining force" (II Thess. 2) holding back the appearance of the antichrist, who would appear after it was dissolved. - Origen (185-254) - antichrist is any heresy that misreads or replaces Scripture. - Commodian (3rd cent. AD) - Institutes, 1.41 - antichrist will be Nero returned from hell. Song of Two Peoples - antichrist an Eastern king with four nations (Persia, Media, Chaldee, Babylon), will cross the Euphrates, destroy Rome and Caesar, be welcomed by the Jews, and perform miraculous signs. - Lactantius (240-320) - Divine Institutes, book 7. Mighty enemy from the North will put down three kings and become a tyrant. An demon-man from Syria will arise to destroy the human race, an incarnate Son of Man (this was believed by Martin of Tours). - Cyril of Jerusalem (315-86) - Catechetical Lectures. An antichrist a magician highly skilled in guileful and evil dealing with philters and enchantments. Will be accepted as Messiah by the Jews and restore the temple in Jerusalem. - Jerome (342-420) - the restraining force was the secular Roman Empire. Rome will divided into ten kingdoms. Antichrist will not be a demon, but one man indwelt by Satan. II Thess. 2 refers to a seat of authority in the church, not the Jewish temple. Antichrist will be of Jewish birth, a parody of Jesus. Jerome rejected the idea of 1000 year reign. - Augustine (354-430) - see Letter 199, City of God 18 & 20, Homilies on I John. Anyone may be the antichrist and there will be many. These will be heretics who come out of the church and may dominate it for a time. - Tyconius (d. 400) - Commentary on The Book of Revelation. Anyone who hates another person is the antichrist. The church has both saints and sinner within it. There will be a final antichrist, just before the arrival of Jesus, who will complete the struggle. - Pseudo Ephrem of Syria (500 AD) - Sermon on the End of the World - This became the basis of the eschatology of the Eastern Orthodox churches. Seven events or stages: a) barbarian incursions; b) surrender of the Roman Empire; c) antichrist arises; d) seizure of power by antichrist; e) 3.5 years; f) Enoch and Elijah return and preach; g) Jesus' final return. - Gregory the Great (540-604) - he believed the end of the world was near. The growing number of evildoers were the "antichrists." "Antichrists work is done daily among the wicked." The antichrist worked through the opponents of the Christian church and was named "vehemoth, rex malorum." This view sees the antichrist as a spiritual being, a type of angel sent by the devil to afflict Christians and the church. - Pseudo-Methodius (691 AD) - develops the idea of the "Last World Emperor," with Alexander the Great as the father of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was used by God to civilize the world. Islam is God's wrath against corrupt Christendom, especially its toleration of homosexuality. - Jewish doctrine of antichrist, "Armillus" dates from 7th c. - Islamic doctrine of antichrist, "Dajjal" also dates from 7th c. - Eulogus and Alvarus (Spain, 9th c.) - Mohammed is the antichrist. - Odo of Cluny (10th c.) - turmoil in the Holy Roman Empire is evidence that the end is near. - **Bishop Arnulf at the Synod of Rheims (991 AD) accuses Pope John XV of being an antichrist, because he is unworthy to fill the throne. This is the first time that the pope was accused of this by a church leader. - Abbot Adso (950 AD), letter to Princess Gerberga, sister of Emperor Otto I and wife of Louis IV. "Biography of Antichrist," similar to saints lives, became very popular in the middle ages. Agrees with seven stages of Pseudo-Ephrem, Jews will be gathered to Jerusalem and converted either to Christ or antichrist. There will be many antichrists. End-christ will be from tribe of Dan in Babylon, raised in Galilee, trained in magic, rebuild the temple, pretend he is God's Son, torture believers, finally destroyed on Mount of Olives. - Papal schism 1073-1085, between Pope Gregory VII (Hildebrandt, the first true Cluny pope) and Wibert of Ravenna. Both sides called the other "antichrist." - Pope Urban II at Clermont, 1095 to Crusaders: "Christian Empire must be - Rupert of Deutz, 1095 - German Emperor Henry IV and his antipope were the 1st and 2nd beasts of Revelation. - Gerhoh of Reichersberg (1093-1196) - Pope is the "pastor angelicus", the holy pope who will oppose the antichrist and reform the church. - Joachim of Fiore (1132-1202) - Many and influential writings. Rejuvenated the literal hermeneutic of Irenaeus and Hippolytus, against Jerome, Augustine and Gregory. He taught a literal 1000 golden age to come after the defeat of the antichrist (premillenialism). He taught three dispensations of history: Father, Son, Holy Spirit. Antichrist is already in the world. Seven periods of persecution will be followed by the antichrist (the 7th head), who will be called magnum prelatum and universalis pontifex. The last days will see the rise of a papal antichrist. - Pope Innocent (1160-1216) - Mohammed is the antichrist. - Pope Gregory IX in 1239 attacked German Emperor Frederick Barbarossa as the "beast from the sea." Frederick's allies called the Pope "red horse, dragon, and beast from the abyss." The Franciscan order published a biography of Frederick's life depicting him as the antichrist. - In the 13th century, the Franciscans got into a big fight with the Pope on the issue of poverty. The pope and members of the order declared each other to be antichrists. - Peter Olivi (1248-98), Franciscan. Followed Joachim of Fiore and the rule of strict poverty. Distinguished between antichrist mysticus and antichrist magnus, which describe evil clergy and evil laity. A pseudo-pope will be set up by the Germans who will be against the rule of poverty. Olivi was the first to give the pope a central role in the antichrist theory, seeing the pope as defending opulence in theory and practice- publication of anti-papal "Vaticinia de summis pontificibus" (ca. 1300) with illustrations about the rise and degradation of the papacy. - Pope John XXII attacked Olivi and his followers, and was opulent, as were the Avignon and Renaissance popes. This tended to confirm the belief that the pope was the antichrist. Bull of 1317 directed against Franciscans who preached about poverty, condemning them to the Inquisition and to be burned to death. - Dante Inferno, 16-19 and Purgatorio 32-33, Simoniac popes identified as antichrist (Nicholas III, Boniface VIII, and Clement V). - Great Schism , 1378-1417 - This was seen as the end of the world. Both sides declared their popes to be antichrists. - John Wycliff (1330-84), professor at Oxford. On Apostasy, On the Pope's Power, and Commentary on Matthew 23-25. The papacy itself as an institution, and not individual popes, is the antichrist. Individual popes may be good, but the institution will usually corrupt them. The papacy is the culmination of the power of the "Son of Perdition." Wycliff's position became Luther's. - Lollards - "Twenty Five Points" (1388). The first point was that the papacy is the antichrist. - Jan Hus - "On the Church" explains how to recognize a pope as an antichrist, but did not completely repudiate the office as Wycliff did. - Hussites - after Hus' murder, identified papacy with the antichrist. Fueled by revolutionary apocalpyticism, which continued through the first phase of the Thirty Years War. - Luther - After the Leipzig debate (1519), he followed Wycliff and Hus in his "Address to the Christian Nobility" (1520). All Lutherans followed this teaching until 19th century. - Thomas Cranmer (1536) in England, John Foxe (1563), and John Calvin in France (1509-64) all held to Luther and Wycliff's position. Lutheran Pietists, Anglicans, and Puritans continued Luthers and Wycliff views, as did Isaac Newton. - Enlightenment, although absolutely critical of the papacy, was also critical of the doctrines of evil. It rejected belief in: a) personal being called Satan; b) literal place known as Hell; c) existence of demons; d) antichrist; e) historical dualism of struggle between good and evil supernatural powers. - Ecumenical movement has followed Enlightenment teaching. - Conservative Evangelicals are generally premillenial and Antichrist is a major theme in their preaching and teaching. XI. Distinction of Priestly and Royal Offices- God works in the world through two authorities: the church and the state, the pastor and the prince, the priest and the king, the right and the left hands of his rule on earth. Traditional Roman Catholicism since Gregory the Great confused this distinction, by giving both to one man. - Cain and Abel as an example of the prince (Cain) seeking the priestly office (Abel's sacrifice). - Moses and Aaron were a proper distinction, Moses as the prince and Aaron as the priest. Moses was chosen immediately by god, not through dynastic successions, because he also fulfilled a prophetic role. - In the division of the tribes, Levi was excluded from military service and thereby ruling capacity, to be devoted to priestly service. - I Samuel 13 - King Saul lost his dynastic legacy because of his unlawful sacrifice, i.e., a sacrifice performed by a king. - II Sameul 7 - God would not let David build a temple, because of his war-filled career. His son Solomon was a man of peace (I Kings 5:3). - Hasmonean Priests as Kings (152-163 BC). Jonathan, brother of Judas Macabeeas, became high priest and ruler after Judas'
death. He was not of the legimate Zadokite line of priests, which were deposed
by the Greeks in 174 BC. Essenes separated from Judaism because of the
Hasmonean "anti-priests", and claimed to follow Zadokite priests. This was the
basis of the Dead Sea Scroll community. Aristobulus I (104 BC ) was the first
Hasmonean priest to claim the name "king." He killed his mother and brother to
ensure his dynasty. The Hasmoneans ruled until the Romans conquered Palestine,
then the priestly dynasty of Annas and Caiphas took over. As seen in the trial
of Jesus, even though the Romans had ultimate power, the priesthood of Annas
still had important secular powers. This limited secular power became the root
of the Jewish Revolt in 66 AD, when the priests refused to pray for the Roman
Emperor. This declared Palestine's official revolt, and led to the complete
destruction of Jerusalem and its temple. - Bishops in Christianity did not claim princely titles or powers, until Pope Gregory the Great (540-640), who dealt with the barbarian Lombards as if he were a prince. Ignoring the secular authority of Byzantium, Gregory appointed governors to Italian cities and provided war materials to them, thus establishing the political and military power of the papacy. - The history of the papacy is generally a history of the growth and augmenting of its secular powers; and the rejection of those powers by the Reformers and Protestants. XII. Conclusion What's New / Resources / Services / Links / Home |